A complete grammar of esperanto pdf

It's perfect for the self-study learner, with a one-on-one tutor, or for the beginner classroom. It can also be used as a refresher course. What do I get? These stories, if bound separately, would alone constitute a reader equivalent to those used in first and second-year work in national languages.

For a list of titles, see Table of Contents. Click to Download! Tags: Learn Languages. I th ought "it is good". Oni miris cxu li venos, they wondered whether he would come. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine n ouns such as. English names similarly form ed from masculine names,. Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaux ilia patrino, iris hierau x al.

La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko estas agrabla,. La knabino parolis al sia frat o pri. Sxi diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo. La knabo diris hodiaux al.

Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke. La infanoj. Sxi parolis al l a patrino pri la. Ili komencis marsxi al la strato, kaj preskaux. T ra la fenestroj de la domoj oni. T amen la patrino diris ke sxi ne timas. Sxi kaj la filino volas. La filo diris al sxi ke li. Baldaux la patro. Li miris cxu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn.

Baldau x. Morgaux ili ne. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. It 51 will be beautiful weather tomorrow , because a pleasant wind. The flowers will wither because those children. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to. At least w e.

My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain. My young. I wonder whether. That park is pleasant and the grass. The birds are building their nests now , in those. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind. I can see that weathercock, on that large.

Mother says that my sister will have a new hat. She will be careful of about that hat. My father's. One sees t hat he is not a strong. The demonstrative pronoun and pronominal adjective meaning "this". Consequently the literal m eaning. The word "cxi" may. Cxi tiu estas la mia, this is mine. Cxi tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this gi rl is my sister. Mi vidis cxi tiujn cxapelojn, I saw these hats. Cxi tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will t ake a walk.

The words "tiu" and "cxi tiu" may be used to distinguish between. T iu rigardas la florojn, cxi tiu kolektas ilin. T o express possession, the demonstrative pronouns "tiu" and "cxi. The use of "ties" and "cxi ties" to mean. Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house. Mi sxatas ties koloron, sed preferas cxi tiun floron,. I like that one's color , but prefer this flo wer. La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. T ies estas nova, sed cxi ties sxajnas bela. Father and his friend are ta lking about their houses.

The former's is new , but th e latter's seems beautiful. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding. T hus, "vir-" is the root of "viro". The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is.

Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of with a needle. La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fl y by with wings. Mi trovis gxin per via helpo, I found it by t hrough your help. Hieraux mi miris cxu mi havos bonan mangxon en la domo de mia am iko. Oni metis tre bonan supon antaux mi,. Post la supo mi havis viandon.

Cxi tiun mi tenis per forko, kaj trancxis per akra tra ncxilo. La forko,. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed. Mi trancxis tiujn cxi per la trancxilo, sed. Mi tenis la forkon en la dekstra. Oni bezonas akran. Post la via ndo kaj la. Il i kusxis sur. Ilia gusto estis an kaux bona. Mi preskaux ne diris ke mi ankaux havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaux al. Post la mangxo, n ajbaro de.

Per la helpo de sia patro, mia am iko konstruos grandan domon. Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. T ies nova. Mia amiko. T amen li volis persikon. Li teni s tiun en la mano, kaj. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not. They will build their nests, and sing about the young.

Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. T omorrow it. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the sof t green grass. They seem almost. It is said 54 that the gr ain in that-man's field. People also think t hat the flowers will. My careful. He sees those gray clouds in on the sky.

The weathercock is an indicator. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a. One holds the spoon in the right hand. A knife is sharp,. We shall have a very good meal,. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun. T ia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beau tiful. Mi sxatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat.

T iaj najbaroj estas agrablaj,. Mi volas auxdi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective,.

It may express manner , time, degree,. Adverbs are either primary , as "now ," "almost," or. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow , the word or words. It must be so pl aced as to leave no doubt about which. Thus, "mi preskaux. Such questions may be put in. La vetero estas bela, cxu ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not? Vi auxdis tiun diron, cxu ne? Y ou heard that remark, did you not? If the meaning of a word is such tha t it can have a direct opposite,. English "malcontent", "discontented," "maladroit",.

Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. T iu havis. Oni povos sxteli. Li ne. Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan cxevalon al la juna.

T uj li diris al cxi tiu "Sed per. La via estas malbela, sed gxi estas almenaux nigra; vi. Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nu n dormos, cxar oni. Mi povos vidi tian cxevalon dum la nokto,. Sed tiu cxevalo via "that horse of yours".

Words to be formed with the prefix "mal-" are quoted. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a for k or a spoon? One puts. One cuts fruit with a knife,. The coffee was "cold", and I was.

My knife was "dull", n evertheless I almost. I was ashamed, but I think. The grass is "wet". I "dislike" to go-walking upon the "hard" streets. The courageous young man and his "aged" friend talked about their.

They wished to be careful about their horses. The "old" man answered that he would give to him h is [own] white horse. He took that one's black horse. He was asha med, and was very. But he "stayed-awake", and guarded. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns "tiu" and.

La telero estas tie, the plate i s there in that place. La libroj kusxas cxi tie, the books lie here in this place. Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie cxi, I found you there and him here. T ie la vetero sxajnas tre agrabla,.

If the verb in the sentence expresses motion to ward the place. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition "kun",. La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend. Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you. The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly. In the linguistic history of this word,. German "widerstreiten", to. G radually this word "with".

German "mit", with, which it crowded. The word. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition,. The adverb "for", away , may be used independently , as "Li iris. The verb "povi", to be able, is used to translate English "can",. Mi povas paroli, I am able to tal k, I can talk. Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk. Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to t alk, Juna viro kaj lia sagxa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj.

La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la jun a viro estis tre kuragxa. La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos help i per siaj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Ecx en. T iaj malamikoj forprenas l a monon de. La juna viro estis kontenta, cxar li estis kun la ami koj. La maljuna viro estis kontenta cxar li estis kun sia filo.

B aldaux la. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskaux ne. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro auxdis vocxojn, kaj. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj ra pidis. La malkuragxaj amikoj de la pat ro kaj. Ili tuj forkuris. La malamikoj staris cxirkaux la patro, kaj forpusxis lin de lia cxevalo.

La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur r esti kun la. Baldaux la. La kolera filo diris per maldolcxa "bitter" vocxo "Cxu vi ne. Cxu vi lasos al ni nek la cxevalojn nek nian monon? Ni ne estas malsagxaj. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay. They did not help them with their swords, but ran away at.

The old man heard disagreeable. The enemy called them,. Those sly bad men took the money out of. They stood around him, and. The father and son could not even guard. The enemy did not leave to these their horses, but. Soo n the enemy rode away , during.

The father and son were angry and. They said "W e fear and dislike such men. The son replied,. But we are now in the desert, an d the road to the city. We cannot ride thither , but we can walk thither. The wise old man answered,.

The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative. T iam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city. Nun ili estas sagxaj, sed tiam ili estis ma lsagxaj,.

An adjective may have three degrees, "positive", "compa rative" and. Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs "pli", more, and. The preposition "el" is used with words expressing the group or. Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is t he youngest of out of those. Vi estas la plej felicxa el ni, you are the happiest of us.

T iu estis la plej ruza el la viroj,. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the. I heard him with interest an d pleasure. I have a horse with a strong body. The verbs "diri", to say , "par oli", to talk, to speak, and. Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to told you that it was raining. Mi diris gxin al vi, I said it to you I to ld you.

Mi parolis al vi pri gxi, I talked spoke to you about it. Mi rakontis gxin al vi, I related told it t o you. Hieraux mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda "the Great".

En gxi oni rakontas ke la regxo kun plezuro legis aux skribis per sia. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna. Cxar la regxo legis plej. Li vokis. Li vidis ke la. T iam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera,. La regxo Frederiko vidis leteron. T uj li prenis la leteron el lia posxo, kaj. Gxi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Sxi ne. En cxi tiu letero la.

Sxi dankis lin cxar. Sxi ankaux dankis lin cxar li donis. La regxo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej. T iam li formarsxis al sia cxambro, kaj vokis la. La knabo tuj auxdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li sxajnis pli malfelicxa kaj diris kun granda. Oni opinios ke mi. Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min! Mi gr atulas vian. An interesting story is related 54 about Frederick the G reat. His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. The king called him,. Y est erday he did not. The king called him, but he did not answer.

He left his book on the table, and went to the door. Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. He looked at him. The letter. He had written a l etter to her , with his. He looked-at the pictures on the wall, but they are neither interesting nor beautiful.

Robert looked through the window, and saw us in the pleasant garden. A pronoun which refers to the same person or thing as the subject of the verb in the sentence, but is used in some other relation than subject of that verb, is said to be used reflexively , or to be a reflexive pronoun. The first and second personal pronouns, mi , ni , and vi , ci are used for the reflexive pronouns of the first and second persons. There can be no ambiguity, since words such as "me, myself, us, ourselves," can refer to no one else than the person or persons speaking; while words such as "you, yourself, yourselves thee, thyself ," can refer to no one else than the person or persons addressed:.

Mi vidas min , I see myself. Mi diris al mi , I said to myself. Ni amuzis nin , we amused ourselves. Ci trovas domon apud ci , thou findest a house near thee. Vi diras al vi , you say to yourself yourselves. Vi amuzas vin , you amuse yourself yourselves. When the verb is in the third person, a pronoun of the third person, used otherwise than as the subject, might or might not refer to the subject of that verb.

For example, "He sees a bird near him," may mean that the subject sees a bird near himself, or near another person. If such a pronoun of the third person is intended to refer to the subject of the verb, Esperanto uses a special reflexive pronoun si accusative sin , which means him self , her self , it self , them selves , according to the gender and number of the verb:.

Li amuzas sin , he amuses himself. Arturo vidis birdon apud si , Arthur saw a bird near him self. Ili amuzas sin , they amuse themselves. La virinoj trovas florojn apud si , the women find flowers near them selves. From the very fact that si always refers to the subject of the verb, it is evident that si can never itself be used as subject or part of the subject of the verb.

A verb having a reflexive pronoun for its direct object is sometimes called a reflexive verb , from the fact that some languages have had or still have a special reflexive or middle form of the verb, to express an act of the subject on or for itself, or they have certain verbs whose use is chiefly or exclusively reflexive.

The conjugation of a verb reflexively is therefore as follows:. La knabinoj ne volas perdi sin en la agrabla kampo.

La muro havas interesajn bildojn sur si. Li kaj Alfredo volis iri al la strato kaj amuzi sin. En la skatolo estis libro, kaj Johano diris al si "La libro ne apartenas al mi. The book in the gray box does not belong to me.

I found it in front of me, near the door. You began to praise yourselves, but I do not praise myself. They hid themselves, and I stood near them. The birds sit on the tree, because it has ripe cherries on it. Alfred amused himself on the street, but we like to amuse ourselves in the house.

The trees have good fruit on them. She found herself in a beautiful light room. The carpet on the floor had various colors in it, and the high wall had pictures on it.

The pictures had boys and girls in them. The book belongs to her, but it fell from the box. The table has red and blue and yellow flowers on it. Did you see the doves near the flowers in front of before you? The birds saw the fruit on the tree in front of them, and flew to the branches.

I sat on the bench in the garden, and began to read an interesting book. They hid themselves in the leaves and began to sing.

The child is in a pleasant room. Ili trovis ilin apud si , they found them other persons or things near them selves. La birdoj flugis al ili , the birds flew to them. Words like "my," "his," "your," which indicate ownership or some possessive relation, are called possessive adjectives. The limitation in the use of the third personal pronouns 42 is also true of the adjectives derived from them:.

Did you read her books? Sometimes these words are called possessive pronouns, although really they are not pronouns at all, but pronominal adjectives with a possessive meaning.

Reflexive possessive adjectives, like the reflexive pronoun, refer to the subject of the verb in the sentence. For the first and second persons, they are the same as the personal possessive adjectives.

The reflexive possessive adjective of the third person is sia , his , her , its , their , formed by adding the ending -a to the reflexive pronoun si :. Mi havas miajn librojn sur mia tablo , I have my books on my table.

Johano perdis siajn librojn , John lost his John's books. La birdoj flugis al sia arbo , the birds flew to their tree. Possessive adjectives may be used predicatively, as "the book is mine," or may modify some word or words not expressed, as "mine are large. La granda libro estas la mia , the large book is mine. La via estas granda, la miaj estas belaj , yours is large, mine are beautiful. Ili havas la sian, sed ne la lian , they have theirs, but not his. Ilia kato kaptis nian birdon. Via kolera diro surprizis mian patron.

La lia estas bela, sed mi preferas la mian. Ili komencis legi siajn librojn. La kato staris post granda arbo, kaj kaptis la paseron. La paseroj ne surprizas ilin nun, sed ili tenas la paserojn.

La junaj paseroj volas flugi al la nestoj en la arboj. The boys are not in their own house, but they are in his. The woman walked through the door of their house, as far as her room. The room has interesting pictures on its walls. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to us. Their books are in their the books' box. They are on their the boys' table.

The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the bird. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held it.

The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a good cat. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held it. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal.

Do you see his cat or hers? I see both his and hers, but ours is not in our garden. My father is a tall strong man. I like to look at him. The children saw the young birds in the nest. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion in a certain direction.

Consequently the accusative is not used after any of these three :. La viro iros Bostonon , the man will go to Boston "Bostonward". English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave it to me," etc.

In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized:.

Li skuas la kapon , he shakes his head. La patro estas alta , Father is tall. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston. La urbo Bostono estas granda , the city of Boston is large. Mia amiko Johano estas alta , my friend John is tall. Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis kamelon. Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon.

The cat ran across the street. Across the street it found a sparrow. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the sparrow flew to the nest. I went into the garden as far as the large tree. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. It began to fall under the table, but I seized it. My brother pushed the books into their box, and put it on the table. We went to the city of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house.

The arab shook his head and said, "No. But the camel commenced to go through the door. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. The camel pushed its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. It wished to put merely its nose into it. The arab was angry, because it pushed itself into his house.

He said, "Brother, the house is mine, and I do not wish to have you in it. But soon after the remark, the whole camel was in the house. He pushed the young arab into the street. He went across the street and stood upon the grass under a tree. La muroj de la domo , the walls of the house. La koloroj de la floroj , the colors of the flowers. La libro de la knabo , the book of the boy the boy's book.

Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," "it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is no actual subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle.

No such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto:. Pluvas , it rains, it is raining. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses an introductory particle, such as "there," "it.

Estas floroj sur la tablo , there are flowers on the table. Estas domo en la kampo , there is a house in the field. Estis mi , it was I. All the conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of similar rank or kind.

These are called coordinating conjunctions, and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said to be coordinate:. The second nek connects the pronouns, the first being introductory and adverbial. Sed connects the phrases. Tamen connects the sentences.

A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not containing a verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," etc.

Kaj is copulative, expressing union. Nek is disjunctive, expressing separation and also negation. Sed is adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or modification of a previous statement. Tamen is adversative, affirming something in spite of a previous objection or concession. Do, so, then, consequently, is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or result in a somewhat conversational manner.

Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, portis lin. Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo. Li havis monon en sia domo en la urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. Did your friend John carry his chair into the house? I saw your good friends on the way to the city. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? Neither she nor her brother saw the whole city.

They went to the city of Boston and lost their way. There are interesting houses across the street. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long.

The camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. In the sack there is money. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. He also wished to give water to the faithful camel.

Nevertheless, he found only money in the sack. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. He wished to come from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. Both he and his friends are rich. They went to his house yesterday, and came to theirs today. They do not need money. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an indirect statement.

The direct statement is "he came," "he is good. A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is dependent upon or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "—that he came," "—when he went," "—that he is good," etc. In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be omitted, either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," being usually permissible.

But in Esperanto there is no variation, and the conjunction ke is never omitted. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc. This pronoun may also be used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc. Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj , one sees that they are friends. Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto , I was told people said to me that there is sand in the desert.

Were we seen did people see us in the garden? The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The ending of this tense is -os, as kuros, will run, flugos, will fly, brilos, will shine.

The conjugation of esti and also of vidi in the future tense is as follows:. Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis.

Mi preferas orientan venton. La viroj, virinoj, kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La vetero ne estis agrabla, kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. Ni preferas la sudan venton. La ventoflago ne estas fidela amiko al ni. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds.

They say that the west wind will be a dry wind. The weathercock now shows that an agreeable south wind blows. People will be angry with against the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. A north wind is not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. It snowed, and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain.

Can one find money in the desert? Do you think that he is in the house? He is said to be they say that he is on the street. It is thought people think that the camel is a faithful friend.

I am told people tell me that the camel has a large body, and a long neck. One can see that it is not beautiful. People do not like to drink warm water. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the city. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have good weather also.

I think that a warm wind will blow soon. My friend has a beautiful new house. The demonstrative pronoun tiu , that, is used to indicate a person or a definitely specified thing. The plural is tiuj , those:. Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun , that is yours, and I wish that one. The demonstrative pronoun tiu is also used as a pronominal adjective , in agreement with a noun:. Tiu vento estos varma , that wind will be warm. Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon , I see that weathercock. Tiuj infanoj estas junaj , those children are young.

Mi trovos tiujn librojn , I shall find those books. The verb in an indirect statement 53 or an indirect question remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or question were direct.

In English this is true only if the introductory verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and am, is, are, have, will become was, were, had, would, etc.

Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as frato , knabo , viro , may be formed from these by inserting the suffix -in- just before the noun-ending -o:. English names similarly formed from masculine names, as Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine, etc. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri la belaj floroj. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. A west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south wind. It 51 will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind is now blowing.

The flowers will wither because those children gathered them. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to take-a-walk, because there are clouds in on the sky. At least we shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain.

My young sister will be careful about that new umbrella. I wonder whether she will take-a-walk tomorrow. That park is pleasant and the grass is soft and green. The birds are building their nests now, in those branches above our heads. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind is beginning to blow.

I can see that weathercock, on that large house near the park. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat tomorrow. She will be careful of about that hat. My father's friend is very careful of his son. One sees that he is not a strong boy. Do you wish these? Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko.

Gertrude and Mary are in the park. The former that one looks at the flowers, the latter this one gathers them. Mi iris al ties domo , I went to that one's house. La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj. The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful.

Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding the suffix -il- followed by the ending -o to roots whose meaning permits:. The root of a word is that part of it which contains the essential meaning, and to which the verb endings -i , -as , -is , -os , the noun ending -o , the adjective ending -a , etc. Thus, vir- is the root of viro and of virino ; kur- is the root of kuri , etc. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition per :.

Oni kudras per kudrilo , one sews by means of with a needle. La birdoj flugas per flugiloj , the birds fly by with wings. Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj , he amuses himself with by those pictures. Post la supo mi havis viandon. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon.

Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Tamen li volis persikon. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not have hands. They will build their nests, and sing about the young birds. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows.